Insect Pest Management for Small Grains

Insect management may be critical to the economic success of a small grains enterprise, and growers should be aware of the various insects and management techniques. These techniques can help a grower prevent and detect some potentially serious insect problems before signiﬁcant loss occurs.

APHIDS

Aphids are small sucking insects that colonize small grains early in the season and may build up in the spring or fall (Figure 11-1, below). They damage the plants by sucking sap or by transmi�ing the barley yellow dwarf virus. Early in the fall, low aphid populations can successfully transmit a serious barley yellow dwarf virus infection to the crop. A large number of aphids must be present before damage from sap-removal occurs.

Two species of aphids are predominant in small grains: the English grain aphid and the bird cherry-oat aphid. However, several others, such as the greenbug and corn leaf aphid, may be found occasionally. These aphids are described in Insect and Related Pests of Field Crops, AG-271, which can be found at: http://ipm.ncsu.edu/AG271/small_grains/small_grains.html. Aphids reproduce rapidly, so their populations quickly build up to levels that can cause an economic loss. However, aphids are usually kept in check by weather conditions and biological control agents, such as lady beetles, parasitic wasps, and syrphid ﬂy maggots, and fungal pathogens that are often abundant in small grains.

Aphids may occur throughout the growing season. Generally, fall populations do not pose a threat. However, in early-planted small grain, especially barley, low levels of aphids in the fall may transmit an infection of barley yellow dwarf virus that can cause symptoms later in the season. In areas with a chronic barley yellow dwarf history, early-planted small grains may beneﬁt from preventative application of Gaucho or Cruiser (insecticide seed treatments), or from foliar treatment with Warrior insecticide. In this case, insecticide treatment may be justiﬁed when aphid populations are relatively low in the fall if yellow dwarf symptoms are occurring and freezing weather is not expected for at least 1 week. As cold weather begins, aphid populations quickly decline.

Scouting for aphids requires searching plants or examining heads on 10 samples taken at locations scattered across each ﬁeld. Each sample should consist of all plants in 1 foot of row or 10 heads, depending on plant stage. For foliage examination, counting aphids on each sample is not feasible; instead, a simple estimation technique is used. Initially, the scout must “calibrate” by visually establishing a mental picture of aphids on 1 row-foot and then counting aphids over the entire plant to determine the actual number. After several repetitions of this exercise, aphid counting is no longer needed because a calibrated mental image is available. This mental image is then used to visually estimate populations in ﬁeld scouting. Head-infesting aphids are similarly estimated, except in this instance the calibration exercise is done by using heads rather than whole plants.

Spring populations of aphids may become much more abundant than fall populations. However, because plants are actively growing, they can support many more aphids without injury. Also, the spring-transmitted yellow dwarf virus usually does not seriously affect plants. Aphids may occur throughout a ﬁeld but more commonly build up in “hot spots.” These insects may be found over the entire plant, including in the heads and at the base of plants. From 100 to 300 foliage-feeding insects must be present per row-foot before insecticides are economically justiﬁed, and head-infesting aphids may reduce yields if there are 25 or more insects per head.

ARMYWORM

Armyworm infests small grains, usually wheat, from late April to mid-May. They can cause serious defoliation, damage to the ﬂag leaf, and also cause head drop. Armyworm populations ﬂuctuate greatly from year to year and among areas of North Carolina. Typically, northeastern and mid-coastal counties of the state experience the most consistent armyworm problems.

Armyworm moths are one of the ﬁrst moths to become active during the spring. Moths prefer to lay eggs on various grasses, and small grains are very attractive. Thick planting, narrow row spacing, and high nitrogen rates promote dense and lush growth, which is conducive to high armyworm infestation. Young armyworm larvae are pale green, yellowish, or brown and have a habit of looping as they crawl. When they become larger (1 to 1-1/2 inches), they are greenish-brown with pale white and orange stripes running down their bodies; the head is honeycombed with faint dark lines (Figure 11-2). The armyworm is described in Pests of Small Grains, which can be found at http://ipm.ncsu.edu/AG271/small_grains/small_grains.html.

Armyworm is the only caterpillar found in large numbers in small grains. They are active at night, hiding under plant litter (such as old corn stalks) and at the base of wheat plants during the day. After dark, they feed on foliage from the bottom of the plant upward. As they eat the lower foliage, or as it is destroyed by leaf pathogens, the armyworm larvae feed higher, eventually reaching the ﬂag leaf. If populations are high, large caterpillars may also feed on the stem just below the head. Armyworm caterpillars may cause serious defoliation and substantial head drop.

Management of armyworm is based on scouting, applying thresholds, and application of insecticides when necessary. Infestations of armyworms are not easily detected by casual observation because caterpillars hide during the day. Fortunately, there are several signs of armyworm infestation, and caterpillars can also be monitored if the correct technique is used. Blackbirds (grackles and red-winged blackbirds) commonly search for armyworms in small grain. Scout any ﬁeld with signiﬁcant bird activity. Signs of armyworm leaf feeding and caterpillar droppings can also be good indicators. Feeding is sometimes inconspicuous because small caterpillars do not eat much and feeding signs are often concentrated on the lower part of the plant. When caterpillar populations are high, droppings may be seen easily but should not be confused with weed seed.

Fields should be scouted for armyworms in May. Early May caterpillars are usually small. Thorough scouting should not be done until the caterpillars are at least 3/8 inch long because populations of little worms are difficult to estimate accurately and often die out. Early scouting can be used to determine if the caterpillars have reached 3/8 inch in length. Once caterpillars reach 3/8 inch or more in length, take at least ﬁve samples per ﬁeld (10 samples in larger ﬁelds of 20 acres and more) by examining 3 square feet of area (e.g. one 3-foot-long strip containing one 7-inch drill row). Look for and count the caterpillars in li�er around the base of plants and under old crop residue. Pay special attention to ﬁelds in which birds are active. Fields should be scouted weekly until a treatment or no-treatment decision is made. Reinfestation of caterpillars in May after a successful insecticide application does not occur.

The economic threshold is two 3/8-inch or longer caterpillars per square foot (6 per 3-square-foot sample).

CEREAL LEAF BEETLE

Cereal leaf beetle, a native to Europe and Asia, was ﬁrst detected in Michigan in 1962. Since that time, it has spread throughout most of the midwestern and eastern United States and has become a signiﬁcant pest of Virginia and North Carolina small grains. This insect can become very numerous in small grain ﬁelds, and the larvae may reduce grain yield by eating the green leaf tissue. Preferred small grain hosts are wheat, oats, and barley.

Adult beetles (Figure 11-3) are about 3/16 inch long and have metallic looking, bluish-black heads and wing covers. The legs and front segment of the thorax are rust-red.

Eggs are elliptical, about 1/32 of an inch long, and yellow when newly laid but darker to orange-brown and ﬁnally black before hatching. Most often the eggs are laid singly or end-to-end in short chains on the upper leaf surface between, and aligned with, the leaf veins.

Larvae (Figure 11-3) are slug-like, have yellowish bodies with heads and legs that are brownish-black. However, body coloration is usually obscured by a black globule of mucus and fecal ma�er held on the body, giving them a shiny black, wet appearance.

Adults overwinter in grasses, ground litter, or other debris, within wooded areas, or other protected sites in the vicinity of last season’s grain ﬁelds. In the spring, they move, feed, mate, and lay eggs in small grain ﬁelds.

Egg laying occurs during March and into April with adults preferring late-planted and thinly sown grain ﬁelds for egg laying. Eggs hatch in about 5 days.

Larvae develop in 10 to 12 days. Peak larval populations occur in mid-April to early May. Small larvae eat a very small amount, but when full grown have a voracious appetite. Upon reaching full size, they dig into the ground and pupate.

Although adults will feed on young small grain plants, their feeding does not affect the plant’s performance. However, larvae eat long strips of green tissue from between leaf veins and may skeletonize entire leaves, leaving only the transparent lower leaf surface tissue. Larger larvae are by far the most damaging.

Severely defoliated ﬁelds can take on a white “frosted” cast as green tissue is lost on the upper leaves.

Leaf feeding reduces the plant’s ability to make its food and limits reproductive growth, particularly if the upper leaves are destroyed. Yield reductions of 10 to 20 percent are typical in infested commercial ﬁelds. Yield reductions of 45 percent have been observed when defoliation was near 100 percent, and the damage occurred early in the heading period. Damage late in the head-ﬁll period does not have a great impact.

Cereal leaf beetles are easily controlled with low rates of several insecticides.

When selecting an insecticide, consider the presence of aphids and armyworm since certain insecticides are be�er choices for unique pest combinations. For example, Sevin should not be applied against cereal leaf beetle if aphids are a potential threat. Sevin kills aphid parasites and predators and can allow a serious aphid increase.

Cereal leaf beetle has only one generation per year and if insecticide is applied correctly, one application will give adequate control.

Insecticide must be applied by early head-ﬁll, before signiﬁcant yield reducing defoliation is done by the larvae. Insecticides can be tank mixed with other materials, such as fungicides, if the timing of the two treatments coincides.

Precaution: Do not add an insecticide to early topdress nitrogen applications. If insecticide is applied too early in the season, it will likely fail to control cereal leaf beetles and can actually increase numbers by removing predators.

The economic threshold is 25 eggs and/or larvae per 100 tillers. This economic threshold replaces the previous threshold that was based on delayed scouting for large larvae.

Proper use allows ﬁelds at risk to be identiﬁed and treated in time to prevent signiﬁcant yield loss.

Eggs and small larvae are easily located on leaves in the spring, and the sampling system is relatively easy and time-effcient.

Scout after peak egg laying and when up to 50 percent of eggs have hatched. If the population is mainly eggs, scout again at a later date when a minimum of 50 percent of the eggs and larvae found are in the larval stage.

Take samples at a minimum of 10 random sites in the interior of each ﬁeld (avoid the edges). At each site, examine 10 tillers (stems) for eggs and larvae. This will result in 100 tillers (stems) per ﬁeld being examined.

Eggs may be on the leaves near the ground. Record the number of eggs and larvae counted at each sample site.

Alternatively, examine stems at random while walking through the major portion of the ﬁeld; again 100 stems per ﬁeld should be examined.

In instances of very high counts, the sampling can be abbreviated after the samples have exceeded the threshold. For example, a scout may ﬁnd 35 eggs plus larvae after examining only 30 tillers. This exceeds the threshold of 25 eggs and/or larvae per 100 stems so sampling may be stopped at that point.

Because cereal leaf beetle is often unevenly distributed in the ﬁeld, it may be necessary to determine if a portion of a ﬁeld is above threshold. If the random sampling indicates an uneven distribution (lots in some samples but few in others), it may be necessary to subdivide the ﬁeld into two or more parts and sample each part as an individual ﬁeld.

Once egg laying has reached a peak, many ﬁelds will need only a single scouting for eggs and larvae. If the proportion of eggs in the sample is 50 percent or greater, then sample again in 5 to 7 days.

In recent years, numerous North Carolina ﬁelds have suffered extensive losses because of Hessian ﬂy infestations. Historically a wheat pest in the Midwest, changes in ﬁeld-crop production including early planted wheat, increased adoption of no-tillage double-cropped soybeans, and the use of wheat as a cover crop for strip-tillage cotton and peanut production have permitted the Hessian ﬂy to reach major pest status in North Carolina.

The adult Hessian ﬂy is a small, long-legged, two-winged insect that resembles a small mosquito (Figure 11-4). It is one of many species of gnat-sized ﬂies that may be found in wheat ﬁelds. The female Hessian ﬂy adult is reddish-brown and black in color and about 1/8 inch long. The slightly smaller males are brown or black. The elliptical eggs are very small and colored orange. Eggs are deposited singly or end-to-end in “egg lines” between the veins on the upper surface of the young leaves (Figure 11-5).

Newly hatched larvae (maggots) are also orange for 4 or 5 days before turning white (Figure 11-6, below). As larvae mature, a translucent green stripe appears down the middle of the back. The maggot is about ¼ inch long when full grown. The maggot transforms into an adult ﬂy inside a dark brown case, or puparium, that resembles a ﬂaxseed in size and shape. Newly formed puparia will be a lighter brown color that transforms to a mahogany brown color with age.

Puparia, or “ﬂaxseeds,” (Figure 11-7) are located under leaf-sheaths and usually below ground on young tillers, or below the joint in older plants.

Hessian ﬂy can be found in small numbers in most wheat ﬁelds at harvest (Figure 11-8). If the wheat stubble is destroyed after harvest, the ﬂy dies and the life cycle is broken. If, however, the wheat stubble is left in the ﬁeld, the ﬂy can survive as “ﬂaxseeds” in the stubble through the summer. In late August and September, adults emerge from the “ﬂaxseeds” and lay eggs on volunteer wheat, or on early planted cover-crop wheat. A ﬁrst generation can be completed on these plants, and the next generation adults emerging from cover-crop or volunteer wheat plants can lay eggs on wheat planted for grain in October and November, before the weather turns cold enough to kill the adult ﬂies. Often Hessian ﬂies begin depositing eggs very soon after seedling emergence.

Once established on a new wheat crop, Hessian ﬂy eggs hatch within a few days, and the tiny maggots migrate into the whorl of small wheat plants but ultimately locate below ground at the base of the stem, where they enter the pupal stage. While feeding, the larvae damage the plants by rupturing leaf or stem cells. This can result in tiller stunting and dieback. A heavy infestation on early-stage plants may greatly reduce plant stand. A new generation of adults usually emerges in March depending on the weather, lays eggs that produce larvae that migrate to the stem joints where they feed and cause further damage. This spring damage may kill the wheat tillers but usually results in weakened stems, small heads, and poorly ﬁlled grain heads with low-quality kernels. Often, wheat lodges in seriously infested ﬁelds.

Rotation: Because the Hessian ﬂy life cycle depends largely upon the presence of wheat stubble, rotations that prevent new wheat from being planted into or near a previous wheat crop’s stubble will be the most effective way to prevent infestations. Avoid planting wheat into last season’s wheat stubble! Continuous no-tillage wheat-double-cropped-soybeans may result in severe problems and should be avoided in Hessian ﬂy problem areas. Additionally, since the Hessian ﬂy is a weak ﬂier, putting distance between the location of new wheat plantings and the previous season’s wheat ﬁelds can prevent new infestations. Although Hessian ﬂy can become serious under other situations, most serious infestations occur when wheat is early planted into wheat stubble or into ﬁelds next to wheat stubble.

Figure 11-8. The movement of Hessian fly from one wheat-for-grain crop to another. Early-planted cover-crop wheat also plays a major role in Hessian fly population growth.

Tillage: Disking wheat stubble after harvest effectively kills Hessian ﬂy. Planting soybean no-till into wheat stubble enhances Hessian ﬂy survival by preserving the site where puparia spend the summer. Burning wheat straw will reduce puparia, but many puparia are found below the soil surface. Therefore, burning is not as effective as disking.

Choosing Cover Crops: Serious Hessian ﬂy infestations have occurred in areas where wheat for grain was planted near early-planted wheat for cover or for dove hunting. In cropping systems where cover crops are used, such as in strip-till cotton or peanut production, use other small grains besides wheat to reduce Hessian ﬂy populations. Oats, rye, and triticale are not favorable for Hessian ﬂy reproduction and do not serve as a nursery, making them preferable over wheat for cover cropping in areas where wheat for grain is also produced. If triticale is used for cover cropping, plant a variety like “Arcia,” that is adapted to North Carolina.

Delayed Planting: Because Hessian ﬂy adults are killed by freezing temperatures, a traditional method for preventing Hessian ﬂy infestation is to delay planting until after the ﬁrst freeze (often called the ﬂy-free date). This concept has not worked well in North Carolina because an early freeze is not a dependable event. Often a “killing freeze” does not occur until December, after the date when most growers need to have wheat planted.

Resistant Varieties: Many wheat varieties are advertised as having Hessian ﬂy resistance. Unfortunately, in most cases this resistance is to a “biotype,” or kind of Hessian ﬂy that we do not have in North Carolina. To be effective here, wheat varieties must be speciﬁcally resistant to “Hessian ﬂy biotype-L”. Wheat varieties with biotype-L resistance (as of 2004) are listed in Table 11-1. This list is updated every year and can be found on the North Carolina Comprehensive Small Grain Production Web site at http://www.smallgrains.ncsu.edu/.

In most cases, varieties rated as “good” in Table 11-1 should provide enough protection to avoid economic loses due to Hessian Fly biotype-L. However, in areas with severe Hessian ﬂy problems, resistant varieties labeled good may not be sufficient to prevent infestations from occurring.

Systemic Seed Treatments: Systemic insecticidal seed treatments (e.g. Gaucho or Cruiser) can be highly effective in protecting wheat seedlings from Hessian ﬂy. They are, however, expensive and should be used only after careful consideration of current production economics.

Foliar Insecticides: Long residual foliar pyrethroid insecticides (speciﬁcally Warrior) applied shortly after wheat emerges (at the two to three leaf stage) have been very effective in controlling Hessian ﬂy. NC State tests have shown that a timely application of Warrior will kill the adult ﬂies, may kill the eggs on treated leaves, and may also kill freshly hatched larvae before they become embedded in the stems. Pyrethroids labeled for use against Hessian ﬂy are limited to Warrior, although Fury and Mustang Max are labeled for use on wheat for controlling other insects. At least three of the following conditions should be met before using a pyrethroid for early season Hessian ﬂy control:

Fields that passed the winter with a signiﬁcant Hessian ﬂy infestation will also be attacked by the next generation of larvae recycling in the crop. Examine ﬁelds with low tiller counts for Hessian ﬂy puparia in January or February. If a pyrethroid is applied as the ﬂies emerge and lay eggs, usually in early March, a high level of control may be accomplished. Judge the need for a pyrethroid treatment by examining the plants for puparia, to identify ﬁelds that will have high ﬂy numbers, and later by scouting heavily infested ﬁelds for eggs on the top surface of new leaves. Eggs are very small, about half the size of a period, so a magnifying glass may be needed. An experienced person with good eye sight can readily detect Hessian ﬂy eggs, especially in direct sunlight since the eggs will shine. Egg counts of four or more per leaf may justify a pyrethroid application.

Effective Control: For a management program to be most effective, implement a combination of all the techniques mentioned above in coordination with neighboring producers. The efforts of a producer who rotates his wheat may be frustrated by a neighbor who plants wheat as a cover crop or who has a no-till double-crop soybeans in an adjacent ﬁeld. Careful selection of oats, rye, or triticale for cover cropping, avoiding planting wheat into or near old wheat stubble, the use of resistant varieties, and/or planting after the ﬁrst frost will minimize Hessian ﬂy damage.

INSECTICIDES FOR SMALL GRAINS

Insecticide suggestions for Hessian ﬂy are discussed in the previous section. Insecticides for other wheat pests can be applied as broadcast spray by ground applicator or aircraft. Once plants become large, insect control, especially for armyworm, may be challenging in thick small grains if temperatures are low or if a short residual insecticide is used. In thick wheat, higher spray volumes may be necessary (5 gallons per acre by aircraft). Suitable insecticides are listed in the "Insect Control in Small Grains" table in the current edition of the North Carolina Agricultural Chemicals Manual, which is at http://ipm.ncsu.edu/agchem/chptr5/504.pdf.

TABLE 11-2. Insect control in small grains
Insect	Insecticide and Formulation	Amount of Formulation per Acre	Active Ingredient (lb) Per Acre	Minimum Interval (Days) Between Application and Harvest	Precautions and Remarks
Aphid At Planting	imidacloprid (Gaucho) 75 ST 480 F seed treatment	0.67 to 2 oz/ cwt 1 to 3 oz/cwt			Early season protection agains aphids. Has shown barley yellow dwarf suppression. Most effective on early planted grains. Do not graze for 45 days after planting. Acknowledge plant-back restrictions. See Hessian ﬂy section.
Aphid: Foliar	dimethoate (Rebelate, Dimethoate) 4 EC	0.5 to 0.75 pt	0.25 to 0.37	60	Malathion is the safest material and should be used when dwellings and livestock are close. Should not be applied below 60°F. Will not reduce barley yellow dwarf virus infection.
	disulfoton (Di-Syston) 8 EC	0.5 to 0.75 pt	0.5 to 0.75	30
	encapsulated methyl parathion (Penncap-M) 2 FME	2 to 3 pt	0.5 to 0.75	15	Consult county extension agent for scouting and threshold suggestions.
	lambda-cyhalothrin (Warrior) 1 F	2.6 ﬂ oz	0.02	30	Keep Warrior away from waterways.
	methyl parathion 4 EC	1.5 pt	0.75	15
Cereal Leaf Beetle	carbaryl (Sevin and others*) 80 S XLR 4 F	1.25 lb 2 pt 2 pt	1 1 1	21 21 21	Use where beetle larvae are actively feeding and above threshold. Do not apply Furadan after heads emerge; use no more than two applications per season. Application of insecticide in topdress fertilizer for preventative control is not advised. The lowest rates of Fury, Mustang Max, and Warrior are usually adequate.
	carbofuran (Furadan)** 4 F	0.5 pt	0.25	—
	lambda-cyhalothrin (Warrior) 1 F	2.6 ﬂ oz	0.02	30
	malathion 57 EC	1.5 pt	0.75	7
	methomyl (Lannate) 1.8 L 90 SP	1 to 2 pt 0.25 to 0.5 lb	0.22 to 0.45	7
	spinosad (Tracer 4 SC)	1 to 3 ﬂ oz	0.03 to 0.09	14 (forage) 28 (grain)
	zeta-cypermethrin (Fury 1.5 EC) (Mustang Max 0.8 EC)	1.9 to 4.3 oz 1.6 to 4.0 oz	0.022 to 0.05 0.011 to 0.025	14
Hessian Fly Fall Generation	imidacloprid (Gaucho) 75 ST 480 F seed treatment	0.67 to 2 oz/cwt 1 to 3 oz/cwt			Early season protection against Hessian ﬂy. Seed usually treated by seedsman. Do not graze for 45 days after planting. Acknowledge plant-back restriction.
Fall and Late Winter Generations	lambda-cyhalothrin (Warrior) 1 CS	2.6 to 3.8 oz	0.02 to 0.03	30	Apply to ﬁelds with high egg count in fall. In spring, apply to infested ﬁelds as ﬂies emerge. Use high rates for heavy infestations.
Fall and Late Winter Generations	Sow late in fall (Oct. 20 in piedmont and Nov. 1 in coastal plain) so that wheat will not be up until ﬂies have emerged and died. Planting date delay may be ineffective if fall is unusually warm.
True Armyworm Spring	carbaryl (Sevin and others*) 80 S XLR 4 L	1.25 to 1.5 lb 2 to 3 pt 2 to 3 pt	1 to 1.2 1 to 1.5 1 to 1.5	21	Apply by air or ground when armyworms are at two per sq ft or greater. Use higher rates when caterpillars are very numerous. High volume (3 to 5 gal per acre) may be beneﬁcial in thickly planted wheat. Poor performance may result when temperatures are cool or when rainfall washes residues from plants. Best to apply when conditions are warm (60°F+) and armyworms are active. Carbaryl may stimulate aphid populations.
	encapsulated methyl parathion (Penncap-M) 2 FME	2 pt	0.5	15
	lambda-cyhalothrin (Warrior)1 EC	2.6 to 3.8 oz	0.02 to 0.03	30
	methomyl (Lannate) 2.4 LV 90 SP	12.3 to 24.5 oz 0.5 lb	0.45	7
	spinosad (Tracer 4 SC)	1 to 3 ﬂ oz	0.03 to 0.09	14 (forage) 28 (grain)
	zeta-cypermethrin Fury 1.5 EC) (Mustang Max 0.8 EC)	1.9 to 4.3 oz 1.6 to 4.0 oz	0.022 to 0.05 0.011 to 0.025	14

** Do not plant any crop for which carbofuran is not registered within 10 months.

CAUTION: . Always use pesticides according to label directions. Be mindful of reducing the impact of pesticides on wildlife and groundwater. See Extension publication AG-463-6, Pesticides and Wildlife—Small Grains, for further information.

This is a chapter from Small Grains Production Guide, 2004-05. Recommendations for the use of agricultural chemicals are included in this publication as a convenience to the reader. The use of brand names and any mention or listing of commercial products or services in this publication does not imply endorsement by the NC Cooperative Extension Service nor discrimination against similar products or services not mentioned. Individuals who use agricultural chemicals are responsible for ensuring that the intended use complies with current regulations and conforms to the product label. Be sure to obtain current information about usage regulations and examine a current product label before applying any chemical. For assistance, contact your county Cooperative Extension Center.

Distributed in furtherance of the Acts of Congress of May 8 and June 30, 1914. North Carolina State University and North Carolina A&T State University commit themselves to positive action to secure equal opportunity regardless of race, color, creed, national origin, religion, sex, age, or disability. In addition, the two Universities welcome all persons without regard to sexual orientation. North Carolina State University, North Carolina A&T State University, U.S. Department of Agriculture, and local governments cooperating.

11. Insect Pest Management for Small Grains

APHIDS

ARMYWORM

CEREAL LEAF BEETLE

INSECTICIDES FOR SMALL GRAINS